Biogenesis

The conclusion that we reach about when an unborn individual is a living

human being answers most of the other questions about pre-born life.

Here we will consider the various views about when an unborn individual

becomes a human being, and, although some points will be left unresolved,

I will state a general conclusion.

AT CONCEPTION.

Genetically, a new DNA-matrix is formed at conception (the time at which the sperm and egg combine). Most
of the physical characteristics an individual will possess (such as gender, ethnicity, eye-color, and so on) are
determined at this time. A unique individual, with a new genetic code that is distinct from the mother's, comes
into being at conception.

The phenomenon of twinning poses a problem for this view. Twinning can occur up to 14 days after the initial
point of conception. This would mean that either a new soul suddenly emerges then (which was not there at
conception) or that one body, prior to twinning, was inhabited by two souls (which seems strange
theologically). It is difficult to insist dogmatically that a soul is present in a body which has the potential to twin
(and thus be occupied by two souls). Also, at this early stage, the fertilized egg is extremely small (less than
a millimeter long) and fragile.

However, it is also difficult to demonstrate that a soul does not come into being at the moment of conception.
The potential for twinning may merely mean that we do not know if there is one soul or two souls but that
does not mean that a complete absence of a soul is a possibility. One might compare the situation to that of
a hunter who sees something move in a forest. The movement might be caused by one human being, or by
two human beings. Or it might be a deer. If the hunter is not sure that his target is not one or more human
beings, should he shoot? Until he could assert with confidence that his target is not a person, and have
evidence for his assertion, it would be irresponsible for him to shoot.

AT IMPLANTATION.

By about the tenth day after conception, the "blastocyst" attaches to the uterus. It is at this point that a
hormonal change occurs in the mother which signals the onset of pregnancy. About 60% of all fertilized
eggs never are implanted. They pass out of the body without the mother ever knowing fertilization has
occurred. After implantation, the blastocyst is in a relatively stable biocontinuum; that is, barring a fatal defect
or an ectopic pregnancy, the blastocyst is positioned to naturally develop and live.

If one were to posit 14 days after the initial conception as the point at which personhood is present, the
question about twinning would be avoided. Also, this would be more consistent with the non-recognition of
personhood given to fertilized eggs which are not implanted. If implantation were adopted as the point at
which personhood is present, the use of forms of birth control which prevent implantation would be
permissible.

However, implantation is basically a change of location, accompanied by an increase in genetic stability.
Except in the cases of late twinning, everything about the blastocyst is essentially the same after implantation
as before. For this reason, it seems to be a somewhat arbitrary point at which to assign personhood.

AT INITIAL BLOOD FORMATION.

By the end of the first month after conception, the form of the individual has changed. The individual is no
longer a blastocyst; the individual is now called an "embryo." Although the heart is not fully developed, the
embryo does have a pulse at this point, and blood. Leviticus 17:11 is cited by some as evidence that at this
point, meaningful life ought to be attributed to the embryo ~ "The life of the flesh is in the blood." The
presence or absence of blood in a body, after birth, is a clear manifestation of the presence or absence of
life. Thus, it is proposed, the presence of blood ought to be the defining criteria for the presence of life
before birth.

However, Leviticus 17:11 is not focused on the determination of personhood; it instructed the Israelites not
to consume the blood of animals. Also, it is possible for a body to have blood and yet be dead. Also, at this
stage of development, the blood cells are not originating from the embryo; they are supplied by the "yolk
sac" in the womb.

AT INITIAL BRAIN WAVES.

The presence or absence of brain waves has been used as a medical criteria

for the presence or absence of life. At about 40 days into pregnancy, the

embryo's brain waves can be detected. By this time, the embryo -- about half

an inch long -- is swimming in the amniotic fluid.

This is a good medical criterion. However, the question has been raised

whether the mere presence of brain waves is enough to assign meaningful life,

or whether brain waves of a certain level of complexity ought to be present

before meaningful life is posited. Despite this "blurring" of the issue, it is universally recognized that when an
individual with a human genetic code has naturally-sustained brain waves, and a naturally-sustained pulse, the
individual is alive. The embryo, at this point, meets these criteria. If, before this point, the burden of proof
was on the side of those who wished to prove that the embryo is a living human being, it would seem that as
a medical question the burden of proof shifts at this point to those who wish to show that the embryo is not a
living human being.

AT INITIAL RESPIRATORY ANIMATION.

At about the tenth week after implantation, the fetus' lungs begin to operate.

Although oxygen is actually supplied through the umbilical cord, the lungs

perform "practice breathing," inhaling and exhaling amniotic fluid. Also, at

this point the fetus simply looks more human than in the early embryonic

stages.

The absence of breathing is a traditional measure for the absence of life.

This may be alluded to in Scripture; James 2:26 states that "For as the body

without the spirit is dead, so faith without works is dead also." (The word for

"spirit" in the Greek text is pneuma, which also means "breath.") In Genesis

2:7, when God created Adam, "man became a living soul" as "the LORD

God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life." Adam was, as the first man,

a special case. Nevertheless it may be said that the Biblical authors used

language which allowed this assumption of how spiritual life is to be measured.

Adults who have breathed oxygen-saturated fluid did not cease to be

living persons simply because the substance they were breathing was a liquid

instead of a gas; it would still have been homicide to kill them while they were

breathing the oxygen-saturated fluid.

At about the same time respiratory activity begins, the fetus' liver and bone

marrow begin to produce blood cells. This seems to meet another proposed

measurement of the presence of life, as described previously for initial blood

formation, but with the added feature that blood is being produced directly by the

fetus' body.

Also, at this time, bone-ossification is underway. If one adopts the alternate-

reading of Ecclesiastes 11:5 ("Just as you do not know how the spirit enters the

bones of the one growing in the womb of a pregnant woman, so you do not know

the works of God, the Maker of all things."), this would seem to fulfil yet another

Biblical measure of the presence of spiritual life. Respiratory animation, direct

blood production, and increased bone development appear at about the same time.

AT QUICKENING.

This refers to the point at which the mother feels the fetus moving in the womb (The term "quick" is used
here in its archaic sense of "moving, demonstrating life"). It is a clear indication that the fetus is
independently active. This typically occurs at about the 19th week of pregnancy. The quickening-point is
measurable in all societies with or without technology, and that is probably its most favorable feature. A
major objection to the use of quickening as a criterion for life is that it is a measure of the mother's ability to
discern fetal activity as much as it is a measure of the fetal activity itself. It is like saying that if a person is
hiding, he is not really there.

AT VIABILITY

This refers to the point at which the fetus is capable of surviving outside the mother's womb. The time of
viability is generally at about 24-26 weeks, although with intensive support and advanced technology some
babies have survived earlier premature births. A major objection to the use of viability as a criterion for
personhood is that even babies after birth are not "viable;" they cannot survive without assistance. The same
could be said of many children and adults.

Also, a statement about viability is a statement involving hypothetical circumstances. The typical fetus is
viable in its current environment, provided that the fetus' biocontinuum is not disturbed. It could be said that
the use of viability as a criterion for personhood is simply absurd: it is like saying, "If the fetus were suddenly
born, the fetus could not survive; therefore the fetus is not a person." As a matter of logic, what is the
difference between that statement, and saying, "If an adult were suddenly held underwater, the adult could
not survive; therefore the adult is not a person?"

AT BIRTH

Because James 2:26 and other passages may imply that the absence of breath is used as a criterion for the
absence of meaningful life, some people claim that personhood ought not to be recognized until after birth.
Stated firmly, this means that until the fetus has taken a breath, the fetus is not to be regarded as a human
being, and has no legal right to live. At least three objections against this may be noted:

First, Luke 1:41-44 affirms the presence of an individual life in the womb before birth: Elizabeth, speaking
explicitly by divine inspiration, states that her pre-born child "leaped in my womb for joy." This certainly
implies personhood. Similarly in Judges 13:7, a woman is instructed to keep the Nazarite regulations (that is,
she should avoid wine and so on) because the child she shall conceive is to be a Nazarite "from the womb."
If personhood were only granted upon birth, there would seem to be little reason to require the mother to
keep those regulations during her pregnancy.

Second, while James 2:26 can be interpreted to mean that the loss of breath indicates the loss of life, that is
not the only interpretation possible. James could easily have been referring to the invisible spirit, rather than
to respiratory function. While the Greek word pneuma can mean "breath," it can also mean "spirit" and that is
how most translations render the text here. James used the same word in James 4:5 and there he was
definitely not referring to respiratory activity. Also, James 5:13 encourages people to sing the Psalms, which
include passages such as Psalm 51:5 ~ "Behold, I was shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive
me" ~ and Psalm 139:13 ~ "For Thou didst form my inward parts; Thou didst cover me [footnote: "Or, knit
me together"] in my mother's womb" [from the 1901 American Standard Version]. Thus James seems to
endorse belief in a continuum of life and personhood before birth.

James 2:26 does not suggest that James thought that fetuses eight months old ought to be regarded on the
same level as rocks. Furthermore, the context of the verse ought to be considered. James was not
addressing a question about personhood; he was describing the importance of having an active, fruitful faith.
To take a simile and turn it into one's definitive basis for determining the presence of meaningful life is a
rather precarious interpretive method. It cannot be shown that any Biblical author, including James, would
view an unborn fetus as anything other than an individual human being.

Third, although this is somewhat subjective, the plain appearance of a fetus in the advanced stages of

pregnancy should not be overlooked. If a fetus eight months old (within the womb) and a baby the same age
(but born prematurely) are compared, they are basically the same as far as physical development is
concerned. Advanced fetuses exhibit a sucking reflex. They hiccup. Fetuses do what babies would do in
the same confined space. It seems arbitrary to say that the transition from the womb to the atmosphere
denotes a fundamental change in the essence of the individual. Put more firmly, the use of birth as a
criterion for the presence of meaningful life has no medical or theological basis.

CONCLUSION:

In light of these observations, natural conception ought to be understood as a possible creation of a soul and
as a possible sign of divine intent to bring forth a child. Implantation ought to be understood as a key
transitional point in the process of procreation; barring some exceptional circumstances, it ought to be
considered a sign of divine intent to bring forth a child or children. Also, the point at which personhood is
initially and clearly manifested is the point at which brain waves, direct blood-cell production, increased bone-
formation, and respiratory activity are all present, that is, generally the tenth week of pregnancy.