Biogenesis

INITIAL RESPIRATORY ANIMATION

At about the tenth week after implantation,

the fetus' lungs begin to operate. Although oxygen

is actually supplied through the umbilical cord,

the lungs perform "practice breathing," inhaling

and exhaling amniotic fluid. Also, at this point

the fetus simply looks more human than in the

early embryonic stages.

A traditional measure for the absence of life is the

absence of breathing. This may be alluded to in

Scripture; James 2:26 states that "For as the body

without the spirit is dead, so faith without works is

dead also." (The word for "spirit" in the Greek text

is pneuma, which also means "breath.") In Genesis

2:7, when God created Adam, "man became a living

soul" as "the LORD God breathed into his nostrils the

breath of life." Adam was, as the first man, a special

case. Nevertheless it may be said that the Biblical

authors used language which allowed this assumption

of how spiritual life is to be measured.

It should probably be noted that adults who have

breathed oxygen-saturated fluid did not cease to be

living persons simply because the substance they were

breathing was a liquid instead of a gas; it would still

have been homicide to kill them while they were

breathing the oxygen-saturated fluid.

At about the same time respiratory activity begins, the

fetus' liver and bone marrow begin to produce blood

cells. This seems to definitely meet another Biblical

measurement of the presence of life, as described pre-

viously for initial blood formation, but with the added

feature that blood is being produced directly by the

fetus' body.

Also, at this time, bone-ossification is underway. If one

adopts the alternate-reading of Ecclesiastes 11:5 ("Just as

you do not know how the spirit enters the bones of the one growing

in the womb of a pregnant woman, so you do not know the works

of God, the Maker of all things."), this would seem to fulfil yet

another Biblical measure of the presence of spiritual life.

These three features -- respiratory animation, direct blood

production, and increased bone development -- appear at

about the same time.

PART ONE: WHEN DOES PERSONHOOD BEGIN?

We will examine several proposals, and their strengths and weaknesses, and although some points
will be left unresolved, I will state a general conclusion.

CONCEPTION.

Genetically, a new DNA-matrix is formed at conception (the time at which the sperm and egg
combine). Most of the physical characteristics an individual will possess (such as gender, ethnicity,
eye-color, and so on) are determined at this time. A unique individual, with a new genetic code
that is distinct from the mother's, comes into being at conception.

The phenomenon of twinning poses a problem for this view. Twinning, when it occurs, happens at
up to 14 days after the initial point of conception. This would mean that either a new soul suddenly
emerges then (which was not there at conception) or that one body, prior to twinning, was inhabited
by two souls (which seems strange theologically). It is difficult to insist dogmatically that a soul is
present in a body which has the potential to twin (and thus be occupied by two souls). Also, at this
early stage, the fertilized egg is extremely small (less than a millimeter long) and fragile.

However, it is also difficult to demonstrate that a soul does not come into being at the moment of
conception. One might compare the situation to that of a hunter who sees something move in a
forest -- if the hunter is not sure if his target is a human being or, say, a squirrel, should he shoot?
Until he could assert with confidence that his target is not a person, and have evidence for his
assertion, it would be irresponsible for him to shoot.

IMPLANTATION.

By about the tenth day after conception, the "blastocyst" attaches to the uterus. It is at this point that
a hormonal change occurs in the mother which signals the onset of pregnancy. About 60% of all
fertilized eggs never are implanted -- they pass out of the body without the mother ever knowing
fertilization has occurred. After implantation, the blastocyst is in a relatively stable biocontinuum;
that is, barring a fatal defect or an ectopic pregnancy, the "blastocyst" is positioned to naturally
develop and live.

If one were to posit 14 days after the initial conception as the point at which personhood is present,
the question about twinning would be avoided. Also, this would be more consistent with the non-
recognition of personhood given to fertilized eggs which are not implanted. If implantation were
adopted as the point at which personhood is present, the use of forms of birth control which prevent
implantation would be permissible.

However, implantation is basically a change of location, accompanied by an increase in genetic
stability. Except in the cases of late twinning, everything about the "blastocyst" is essentially the
same after implantation as before. For this reason, it seems to be a somewhat arbitrary point at
which to assign personhood.

INITIAL BLOOD FORMATION.

By the end of the first month after conception, the form of the individual has changed. The individual is
no longer a "blastocyst" but is called an "embryo." Although the heart is not fully developed, the embryo
does have a pulse at this point, and blood. Leviticus 17:11 is cited by some as evidence that at this
point, meaningful life ought to be attributed to the embryo ~ "The life of the flesh is in the blood." The
presence or absence of blood in a body, after birth, is a clear manifestation of the presence or
absence of life. Thus, it is proposed, the presence of blood ought to be the defining criteria for the
presence of life before birth.

However, Leviticus 17:11 is not focused on the determination of personhood. In its textual setting, it
instructed the Israelites not to consume the blood of animals. Also, it is possible for a body to have
blood and yet be dead. Also, at this stage of development, the blood cells are not originating from the
embryo; they are supplied by the "yolk sac" in the womb.

INITIAL BRAIN WAVES.

Although Scripture is silent about this feature, the presence or absence of brain waves has been
used as a medical criteria for the presence or absence of life. At about 40 days into pregnancy, the
embryo's brain waves can be detected. By this time, the embryo -- about half an inch long -- is
swimming in the amniotic fluid.

This is a good medical criterion. However, the question has been raised whether the mere presence
of brain waves is enough to assign meaningful life, or whether brain waves of a certain level of
complexity ought to be present before meaningful life is posited. Despite this "blurring" of the issue,
it is universally recognized that when an individual with a human genetic code has naturally-sustained
brain waves, and a naturally-sustained pulse, the individual is alive. The embryo, at this point, meets
these criteria. If, before this point, the burden of proof was on the side of those who wished to prove
that the embryo is a living human being, it would seem that as a medical question the burden of proof
shifts at this point to those who wish to show that the embryo is not a living human being.

VIABILITY

This refers to the point at which the fetus is capable of surviving outside the mother's womb. The
time of viability is generally at about 24-26 weeks, although with intensive support and advanced
technology some babies have survived earlier premature births. A major objection to the use of
viability as a criterion for personhood is that even babies after birth are not "viable;" they cannot
survive without assistance. The same could be said of many children and adults.

Also, a statement about viability is a statement involving hypothetical circumstances. The typical
fetus is viable in its current environment, provided that the fetus' biocontinuum is not disturbed. It
could be said that the use of viability as a criterion for personhood is simply absurd: it is like saying,
"If the fetus were suddenly born, the fetus could not survive; therefore the fetus is not a person." As a
matter of logic, what is the difference between that statement, and saying, "If an adult were suddenly
held underwater, the adult could not survive; therefore the adult is not a person?"

BIRTH

Because James 2:26 and other passages may imply that the absence of breath is used as a criterion
for the absence of meaningful life, some people claim that personhood ought not to be recognized
until after birth. Stated firmly, this means that until the fetus has taken a breath, the fetus is not to be
regarded as a human being, and has no legal right to live. At least three objections against this may
be noted:

First, Luke 1:41-44 affirms the presence of an individual life in the womb before birth: Elizabeth,
speaking explicitly by Divine inspiration, states that her pre-born child "leaped in my womb for joy."
This certainly implies personhood. Similarly in Judges 13:7, a woman is instructed to keep the
Nazarite regulations (that is, she should avoid wine and so on) because the child she shall conceive is
to be a Nazarite "from the womb." If personhood were only granted upon birth, there would seem to
be little reason to require the mother to keep those regulations during her pregnancy.

Second, while James 2:26 can be interpreted to mean that the loss of breath indicates the loss of life,
that is not the only interpretation possible. James could easily have been referring to the invisible
spirit, rather than to respiratory function. While the Greek word pneuma can mean "breath," it can
also mean "spirit" and that is how most translations render the text here. James used the same word
in James 4:5 and there he was definitely not referring to respiratory activity. Also, James 5:13
encourages people to sing the Psalms, which include passages such as Psalm 51:5 ~ "Behold, I was
shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me" ~ and Psalm 139:13 ~ "For Thou didst form
my inward parts; Thou didst cover me [footnote: "Or, knit me together"] in my mother's womb" [from the
1901 American Standard Version]. Thus James seems to endorse belief in a continuum of life and
personhood before birth.

James 2:26 does not suggest that James thought that fetuses eight months old ought to be regarded
on the same level as rocks. Furthermore, the context of the verse ought to be considered. James
was not addressing a question about personhood; he was describing the importance of having an
active, fruitful faith. To take a simile and turn it into one's definitive basis for determining the presence
of meaningful life is a rather precarious interpretive method. It cannot be shown that any Biblical
author, including James, would view an unborn fetus as anything other than an individual human being.

Third, although this is somewhat subjective, the plain appearance of a fetus in the advanced stages of
pregnancy should not be overlooked. If a fetus eight months old (within the womb) and a baby the
same age (but born prematurely) are compared, they are basically the same as far as physical
development is concerned. Advanced fetuses exhibit a sucking reflex. They hiccup. Fetuses do
what babies would do in the same confined space. It seems arbitrary to say that the transition from
the womb to the atmosphere denotes a fundamental change in the essence of the individual. Put
more firmly, the use of birth as a criterion for the presence of meaningful life has no medical or
theological basis.

QUICKENING.

This refers to the point at which the mother feels the fetus moving in the womb (The term "quick" is
used here in its archaic sense of "moving, demonstrating life"). It is a clear indication that the
fetus is independently active. This typically occurs at about the 19th week of pregnancy. The
quickening-point is measureable in all societies with or without technology, and that is probably its
most favorable feature. A major objection to the use of quickening as a criterion for life is that it is
a measure of the mother's ability to discern fetal activity as much as it is a measure of the fetal
activity itself -- it is like saying that if a person is hiding, he is not really there.

In light of these observations, natural conception ought
to be understood as a possible creation of a soul and
as a possible sign of divine intent to bring forth a child.

Implantation ought to be understood as a key
transitional point in the process of procreation;

barring some exceptional circumstances,

it ought to be considered a sign of divine intent

to bring forth a child or children.

Also, the point at which personhood is initially and
clearly manifested is the point at which brain waves,
direct blood-cell production, increased bone-formation,
and respiratory activity are all present, that is, generally
the tenth week of pregnancy.