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CHAPTER THREE:
FROM THE COUNCIL OF NICEA TO THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES: A.D. 325-814
c. 367 ~ Athanasius, a defender of Trinitarian thought (the belief in God as three eternal Persons), lists the
canonical books of the New Testament. He also supports the perpetual virginity of Mary, and engages in various theological debates.
381 ~ Council of Constantinople. The decisions of the Council of Nicea are re-affirmed and the Nicene Creed is
issued as a definitive summary of Christian doctrine.
c. 390-430 ~ Augustine of Hippo develops teachings of original sin and purgatory. He writes the book "City of God,"
promoting Rome as the church capital, so to speak. He debates free will and human nature with the British theologian Pelagius.
c. 400 ~ John Chrysostom preaches and writes against immorality and political corruption.
431 ~ Council of Ephesus. To resolve the question of Christ's Deity, Mary is affirmed to be the "Theotokos," God-
bearer. Nestorius, who refuses to call Mary "Theotokos," is condemned.
440-461 ~ Leo the Great, bishop of Rome, claims authority over all Christendom.
451 ~ Council of Chalcedon. Christ is affirmed to be one Person in two natures, human and Divine, "with no
confusion, no change, no division, and no separation." Groups in Egypt, Armenia, and Syria withdraw from fellowship with Rome.
486 ~ The Roman Empire collapses. Its armies were unable to defend its borders. Byzantium (a.k.a.
Constantinople) officially becomes the new political center.
496 ~ Amid the unrest and relative disorder in Europe, Clovis king of the Franks converts to Christianity, along with
many of his soldiers.
530's ~ Byzantine Emperor Justinian creates the law-code that was to be used throughout the Middle Ages. Later,
Justinian's greatest general, Belisarius, decimates the Vandals, who followed the teachings of Arius.
Early 500's ~ Benedict establishes the Benedictine Order of monks in Europe.
553 ~ Second Council of Constantinople. Although the Bishop of Rome is now generally regarded as the earthly
head of the church, it is Emperor Justinian who arranges this council, which re-affirms the dual natures of Christ.
590-604 ~ Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, streamlines the church's organizational structure, reduces
corruption, promotes the celibacy of priests, and sends missionaries into Europe, notably Augustine of Canterbury.
610-632 ~ In Arabia, Muhammad founds the religion of Islam. Following his death in 632, his followers spread
Islam throughout Arabia and northern Africa, engaging in many military campaigns.
732 ~ Battle of Tours. Charles Martel, king of the Franks, defeats invading Muslim armies, who retreat into the
southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain).
800 ~ Charlemagne, grandson of Charles Martel, establishes the Holy Roman Empire in Europe. The Roman
Catholic Church grows stronger, building its own political system complete with its own army and political territory in central Italy, the Papal States (a gift from Charlemagne's father Pepin in 756).
814 ~ Charlemagne dies; the Middle Ages begin.
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CHAPTER FOUR: THE MIDDLE AGES: A.D. 811-1455
Early Middle Ages: the Roman Catholic papacy (the Pope and his assistants) exercises a degree of control over
various European monarchies, threatening to excommunicate rulers who do not submit to the Pope's authority. It also gains control of large amounts of property. At the same time, various monarchs buy church positions and often determine who shall be Pope.
867 ~ Disagreements regarding a clergyman named Photius result in great strain on relationships between the
Pope and the Eastern church (also called the "Orthodox" Church) based in Constantinople.
988 ~ Orthodox Christianity is introduced in Russia by Prince Vladimir.
1054 ~ Longstanding disagreements regarding the date of Easter, church authority, and creedal semantics result
in a formal schism (doctrinal division) between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Church.
1095-1099 ~ The First Crusade. The Holy Land, previously ruled by Muslims, is conquered, and becomes four
colonies ruled by European princes.
High Middle Ages: the Roman Catholic Church becomes the dominant political force in Europe. Various Italian
families compete for control of the papacy. Several Popes of this period are morally decadent.
c. 1120-1153 ~ Bernard de Clairvaux spreads the Cistercian Order, calling monks to adopt austere but socially
useful lifestyles.
1173 ~ In France, Peter Waldo begins a movement of preaching by the laity. He denies the full authority of the
Pope, and denounces the concept of purgatory. His followers, the Waldenses, are declared heretics in 1184.
1187 ~ Battle of the Horns of Hattin. In Palestine, Muslims overwhelming defeat a European army and regain
control of most of the Holy Land.
c. 1190-1199 ~ The Third Crusade. Led by Richard I of England against the Muslim general Saladin, the crusade
results in a truce; Christian pilgrims are allowed to visit Jerusalem but the Holy Land remains controlled by Muslim governments.
1204 ~ The Fourth Crusade. Instead of targeting the Holy Land, the crusaders carry out a massive raid of
Constantinople, weakening the Byzantine Empire.
Early 1200's ~ Francis of Assisi begins the Franciscan Order(s) of monks. Dominic, responding to false teachers
in France, begins the Dominican Order.
1215 ~ Fourth Lateran Council. The doctrine of transubstantiation (stating that the bread and wine of the Lord's
Supper literally become the flesh and blood of Christ) is affirmed.
1231 ~ Catholic monks begin the Inquisition, a long-term strategy of eliminating threats to the papacy via drastic
methods of the torture and, at times, execution of non-Catholics. The Inquisition is later directed against Jews and Protestants.
1245-1274 ~ Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican monk, writes the book "Summa Theologica," describing the harmony
between faith and reason and other points of theology.
1302 ~ Pope Boniface VIII writes "Unam Sanctam," officially declaring that submission to the Pope's authority is
necessary for salvation.
1309-1377 ~ The papacy is moved from Rome to Avignon, France, and becomes a puppet of the French
government. Following this "Babylonian Captivity," a drawn-out power struggle ensues, called the "Great Papal Schism."
1380's ~ John Wycliffe preaches against the papal hierarchy, denies the Catholic doctrine of "transubstantiation,"
and translates the Vulgate into a form of English. His followers were called Lollards.
1369-1415 ~ In central Europe, John Hus, expanding on Wycliffe's ideas, calls for a return to Bible-based
Christianity, and thoroughly denounces the papacy.
1414-1417 ~ Roman Catholic leaders meet at the Council of Constance to settle the ongoing power struggle.
After dismissing all claimants to Popedom, they appoint a new Pope. Also, John Hus is promised safety to appear before the Council and explain his views. He attends. But he is then arrested by the Roman Catholics and is burnt at the stake.
1455 ~ Johann Gutenburg invents the printing press; the first large book printed is the Vulgate Bible.
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